Absent fathers, Garvey's children and the Back to Africa Movement
Prepared for the 10th General Assembly of the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, CODESRIA, 8-12 December, 2002 @ the Nile International Conference Centre, Kampala, Uganda.
Jalani Niaah
Institute of Caribbean Studies
Faculty of Humanities and Education
University of the West Indies
Mona Campus
bongoniah@yahoo.com
(DRAFT)
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the expression of the idea of Back to Africa by the Rastafarian Movement of Jamaica. It argues that the idea of a return to Africa is a highly significant and often misinterpreted paradigm within the African Diaspora resistance dialogue. Through an examination of select text brought by Marcus Garvey delineating the notion of "Africa for the Africans at home and abroad", as well as some of the musical texts addressing the return of the uprooted and scattered children of Africa, namely that of Robert ‘Bob’ Marley, the Movement’s contribution to African world thought will be viewed. The paper makes an assessment of the conceptualization of Resistance and Liberation paths, by the western trained academic versus the ordinary folk, toward a recommendation of greater collaboration between the two in achieving greater progress toward the advancement of African peoples.
INTRODUCTION
"One of the charges leveled against Jamaican men is their sexual irresponsibility. Not only do they not stick to one partner, but they also run form commitment and form paternity. The number of single mothers is proof enough: the fathers have abandoned their responsibility. That is why, in this country, it is the women who father their children. The men who stick to one partner, who acknowledge paternity and live up to their responsibility as fathers are the few exception…" (Chevannes 1999)
This paper attempts to contextualize the logic of the Rastafari approach to social development and the ‘African Redemption project in general. It out lines how it is that the Movement has chosen to strategize its approach in the wake of tremendous attack on the African man and his family in general, resulting in perceptions of the majority of Jamaican African male as irresponsible. We argue that the Rastafarians are an exception to the perception of the Jamaican male and in essence provide a Revolutionary cosmology in the way that the Movement represents a fundamental position of a return to the father – this we argue is the essence of the embrace of the Ethiopian Godhead, Haile Sellassie I, as well as the claims to Repatriation which the Movement makes. Additionally, it is argued that in the construction of this cosmology the Rastafari Brethren have claimed a the common fatherhood of God and Brotherhood of Man, in the way in which Marcus Garvey described the African as worshiping God through the spectacles of Ethiopia. But perhaps most importantly the Movements manifest the idea of the Old Testament prophet Malachi who spoke of the day of the lord "And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." (Mal. 4:6). Essentially we argue that the Rastafari represent a return to the ways of the father.
A Return to…ABBA, DADA, FADA, PAPA, MASA GAD
"Africa like a bereaved mother, holds out her hands to America, and implores you to send back her exiled children…what a mystery, when the youthful patriarch, lost to his father, was sold into slavery… Send them home instructed and civilized, imbued with the pure principles of Christianity..."
In 1960 Arthur Lewis, the then principal of the University College of the West Indies, wrote to the Premier, Norman Manley, requesting urgent action on the part of the government to assist the Rastafari Brethren in their struggle for human dignity and recognition. Thirty eight years later, the Vice Chancellor of the University of the West Indies, Professor the honourable Rex Nettleford, in a keynote address to a Conference celebrating the work of key Rastafarian elders identifies the Rastafarian Movement as follows:
"Of all the people who have been fighting for Human Dignity, for Black Dignity, and justice to People of African ancestry the Rastafarian are the only ones who have made the kind of quantum leap that all civilization must make, in terms of determining its own God, its own image and this is a fantastic development and this of course is not usually understood. When we did the ‘Report’ in 1960, we were regarded as blasphemous…They have lived to eat their words, Thank God… "
In this fight for Human Dignity expounded and articulated by the United Nations and the hundredths of non-governmental organization and watchdogs globally, We African peoples have still yet to gain authority over our minds and it is this contribution of the Rastafarians which Nettleford identifies as not usually understood. Brother Mortimo Planno, Rastafari patriarch speaks to this basic Human Right to hold opinions by asserting that "God allows us …to say all we do of Haile Selassie I, it is a simple logic". In a lecture entitled, "The Faculty of Interpretation: Bob Marley, Christ and Rastafari", Planno provides a fitting context around which to engage with this new interpretation of God as a central part of his concept of ‘a New faculty of Interpretation’:
"Them say the pope, him infallible. We Rastaman say Haile Sellassie is infallible – the pope is no King, this whole warfare is to protect the King – not to make Him checkmate that is our part of the whole [thing]…
There is a saying among the Jamaican folk which states that "belief kill and belief cure". The people are socialized and – governed so as to believe in Our Father, Our Lord Our God and Our King. The irony is however, as Chevannes points out, the activism around preaching of God and His revelations could be viewed as madness, because one is also socialized to believe that one cannot touch or feel God. It is this belief system that Planno immediately enters into, the belief system of the people and some of the accepted ideas by which they conduct their lives, he enters the realm of the mind when he presents this argument. The presentation of them versus we Rastaman also is instructive as it helps to personalize the concept of ‘Babylon’, a common Rastafarian parlance for a tradition of western systemic oppression identified as seated in the papacy headquartered at the Vatican. This belief system locates its ideas in its ability to see and discern for itself, and through this ability dismissing them and their belief in the infallible pope, while asserting ‘we Rastaman’ evidence of the promised Messiah in Emperor Haile Sellassie I, the King of Kings. Planno’s provides a picturesque visual schema in which to understand the reality of the system under which Babylon holds its captives by using the game of chess he illustrates the nature of the reality, the characters, Power, role play and the experiences. Lastly he identifies our part in this game, that being "to protect the King…not to make Him get checkmate", this provides a powerful analogy for understanding the respect, honour and service this Black King command from Rastafarians such as Planno, even in that distance of the African Diaspora. The sentiment that is clear in Planno’s thesis, there is a bipolar system in place, an inevitable them against we, in this system, Haile Sellassie is we Rastaman choice over the pope.
It is evident that the persona of Rastafari has emerged to be one of the most identifiable and highly visible characters of Jamaica and is seen as a mouthpiece of the African Liberation struggle in general. Horace Campbell identifies Rastafari as one of the most significant movers and shapers of pan African ideas even more so than pan-Africianism itself. Despite lack of main stream acceptance Rastafari has managed to sustain an evolving current of Pan-African philosophy and praxis for much of the last century. In recent time a wealth of literatures has developed seeking to track and record this World African Resistance phenomenon. Many persons including Ethiopian country folk find it difficult to understand the ‘logic’ to the Rastafari Movement especially as it defines ‘our’ (African peoples) roles, and in particular ‘place’ in African society today. A key component of this difficulty in persons understanding of inner logic is Rastafari philosophy developed around Ethiopia and its legendary Priest King, manifested in the person of Emperor Haile Sellassie 1st.
If the Bible be transposed on existing reality then it is apparent that the ‘Rastafarian life’ since heralding the King of Kings, has become a living testament of that which is prophesied of the coming of Christ son of God. This account draws on Brother Planno who uses his life’s witness to demonstrate the prophetic nature of his experiences in the faith of Rastafari. This interrogation of Mortimo Planno’s ideas it is believed will provide a fruitful guide in discerning some of the logic perhaps even the inner logic of the Movement’s Back-to-Africa aspiration. It is also intended to illustrate how the ideas, visions, and aspirations represent through this Rastafari Movement or even ‘faculty’ – constitute a truly unique and highly accessible source, for scholars as it relates to folk memory and philosophy. As well to demonstrate the presence of a character- a nascent global emancipating institution – evolved by ‘ordinary folk’ to refashion the reality encountered in the world. This paper seeks to determine the role and place of Rastafari ideas in Caribbean Critical knowledge, in particular as it relates to the vision of the African Redemption.
A Return to the father: Location of terms
Ras Tafari: The Amharic words Ras Tafari, which means "head creator" – has come to be widely embraced globally as a foundation of the modern critique of colonialism and neo-colonialism. Head is defined as the position or place of leadership, authority or honour, a person to whom others are subordinate…leader or chief ‘-head’; Creator – the All Mighty Father that bring all into being, the maker of the Universe, God. This interpretation of the significance of the name ‘RasTafari’ and its meaning is an important foundation of the Rastafarian faith which holds the philosophy that word-sound is Power. Emerging form the name RasTafari a Movement has emerged bearing this name. Rastafari identify this as fulfillment of the Revelation which speaks of God’s new name written on the foreheads (Rev. 22:4). The Rastafari Movement, to place a meaning on it once more we look to Planno’s experience, he talks of Rastafari as an organism, "a Movement not a ‘stayment’…." He identifies the Rastafarian as the Earth Most Strangest Man, by this he tries to express the observations that he has come to see professed and engaged by those who identify themselves and are identified as Rastafarians. He further expounds:
"We are a visionary movement who believe in the religious aspect of His Majesty Haile Sellassie being the returned Messiah. (the movement derives its name from Ras Tafari – Haile Sellasie’s name as a prince) …we got this belief from the direction of Marcus Garvey pointing the vision to us." (Spear 1979)
Peter Tosh’s definition of Rastafari is also insightful. He identifies it as – progress; love; light (Tosh, Honorary Citizens). Crucial to the Movement and those identified within it is a philosophy, a system of reasoning and understanding which Chevannes identifies as a gateway into critical thinking within the fork paradigms. The Rastafari Movement is therefore - for the purpose of this work – viewed as an ‘African liberation’ work force (emerging in Jamaica around 1928-32, concentrated around the leadership of the King of Kings, Emperor Haile Sellassie I, those "ones" who hold claim to an understanding of themselves as Ethiopian/Africans and striving to return to the African homeland. This is often, especially in the older literature referred to as the Back to Africa Movement.
Introduction of the principle of Repatriation within the cosmology of Rastafari has taken on added significance and meaning especially since the granting of a bit of land (Shashamanie), the proverbial Promised Land, in 1955 by His Imperial Majesty Haile Sellassie I of Ethiopia. Repatriation however goes back to the earliest experience of African transplantation for the African continent, it is a part of the Caribbean Folk philosophy, that philosophy defined as connected to an oral, and especially the non-scribal memory, African rooted, developed and espoused, by peoples who hold strong attachment to land though at the same time asserting that Ras Tafari is one of the most avaricious in literacy and literary discourses and take very seriously the reviewing of that which is written about the Movement. Literary thrist is an outstanding feature of the Movement identifiable more pronounced than in other patterns of folk ‘religio-adjustment movements’.
The term ‘teacher’ is offered as simple explanation for the role played by the key Rastafarian idealogues such as the early patriarchs of the Movement. There is evidence in the designation of ‘Teacher’ in the Movement as Joseph Hibbert for example is still referred to by those who knew him as ‘Teacher Hibbert’. Further to this ‘teacher’ was invoked by the founding patriarch of the Rastafari Movement Leonard Howell who described himself as ‘Gangunguru Mahragh’ or teacher of famed wisdom/ teacher of what is good, and rendered by the folk who followed him as ‘the Gong’ – as in to have awakening resonation. Bob Marley who emerged some forty years after the Movement’s formation was to take on the title ‘Tuff Gong’ in continuation of this tradition of resonating, and he too could be viewed as a ‘teacher’ perhaps one of the twentieth century’s most outstanding liberation messenger. Marley’s practice however drew on a system of thinking and interpretation which was provided for him and others largely from Mortimo Planno and a few other key elders of the Movement. .
Returning to ‘our’selves: Rastafari and the Project of Redemption
"…failings in the past, present and future will be through our failures to know ourselves and realize the true functions of man on this mundane sphere…"
The thinking on Diasporicity, its foundation and logic are evidenced through the cultural values held by communities especially when issues of identity and in particular, ‘collective identity’ are brought in focus. The academic discourse on African Diasporicity is indeed long established however it is less reflective of a common cultural value that was translatable into grassroots empowerment and activism. When the historical development of the Rastafari Movement is examined it provides a useful insight into the evolution of a collective cultural vision of the phenomenon of Diasoricity and most importantly it contained a view of Redemption, and how it is that that this project can be achieved based on the history and culture of the Africans which were scattered. Marcus Garvey’s mobilization of the scattered Africans’ consciousness was but only an important starting point for a work which is still in progress. The Rastafari Movement when it emerged marked a new direction to the ideas of Garvey as far as it meant immediate engagement of the system through its preaching of a ‘mental disengagement’ form the oppressive administration and an embrace of the kind favour of the African Redeemer King. The Rastafari Movement’s message of liberation quickly caught on, with each of its converts feeling empowered to think and reason out his position in society. Never before had the ideas of a return to Africa held such a supreme place in popular folks’ consciousness, held as a type of panacea for the greatest problems being experienced in the captivity of Babylon. Within this framework of disengagement for the oppressive system labeled Babylon, the idea of a return to Africa was the most extreme and subversive in potentially.
Cultural Studies: An Approach
To approach Rastafari research through the framework of Cultural Studies helps to add sensitivity and depth to how the Movement has been interpreted. By widening the text of study to allow for greater exploration of testimonies the Movements identity, character, and purpose can be assessed, as perceived by key activists themselves, through the reviewing cases and specific events seen to be significant in the history of the Movement. New meaning and interpretation can best be derived from the Rastafari Movement’s history, in particular the history surrounding the strategies pursued for achievement of liberation through the Back to Africa Idea. Especially in the wake of global action and framework dealing with Repatriation, through the United Nations, the case of Rastafari becomes an example for action research, and Cultural Studies can seek to concretise the way in which cultural practitioners and their multiplicity of artifacts are interpreted and how the experiences of Back to Africa remedy is viewed.
The ideational and philosophical high points of the Movements history as a way of viewing how such an ‘organism’ of liberation emerges, grows and develops in the face of extreme struggle, persecution and oppression will now be examined. Given the contribution made by Rastafari to discourses on Liberation of African people Jamaica has been privileged throughout the world as holding a consciousness which is sought after by many. It would not be far fetched to regard Jamaica as a Mecca of Rastafari Faith. It is to this extent that Sir Arthur Lewis’ pronouncement that "we are all Rastas", makes sense as those inhabiting this space are connected to everyone else through the crucible of colonialism and our ability to feel and speak up for our common humanity’s plight. Rastafari has been acknowledged as one of the most vocal African Diasporian voices during the period of Apartheid in South Africa. But the Rastafarians more so than others, form the margin, agree to hold and represent through ‘wordsound’ the feelings, the memories, the pain, the homelessness, the poverty, and estrangement because of his Faith. Music is a significant medium and its text crucial evidence that can be used to identify the ideas as related to the treatment of Back to Africa and of disseminating the Movement’s ideas.
Bob Marley’s last three albums are "Confrontation", "Uprising" and "Survival". Contained within these works are the theses of the Rastafarian philosophy and work. The historical anthems "Redemption Song" and "Africa Unite" are unambiguous messages of African experience and hope…previously Marley had envisioned the return of Africans to the native land and Exodus is that testament. More than any thing however Marley’s work like that of Marcus Garvey resounded with the truth of the conditions faced by Africans the world throughout.
These forms a commonly lyrical text made even more highly accessible through media such as ‘Irie FM’ and ‘Roots FM’ radio stations, both of which form important voices for folk cultural ideas, especially music. When music is viewed within the historical backdrop of the Dance Hall as a Jamaican cultural space with an increasing amplification, Rastafari music can be seen as a major contributing source for the discourse. Since 1990 artistes such as Capleton, Buju Banton, Garnet Silk, Luciano, Anthony B, Sizzla have emerged to hold the tradition of thinker-teacher-transformer, even musician. Prior to this Bob Marley would have constituted the best known example of the Rastafarian thinker teacher.
The Rastafari Movement when viewed as a Revolutionary cultural praxis, Ethiopian centred, having within it the charismatic fabric of a counter-hegemonic world religion, becomes a major contributor to the foundation of Caribbean intellectual tradition. To date there is no academic work that is devoted to a ‘culture-sensitive’ interpretation of Rastafari as philosopher, teacher, philologist, Pan-African, Ethiopian Statesman, Afrian Diasporian Liberator. The literature to-date places the Rastafari Movement largely within the expression of under-class expedient response to oppression as opposed to the view of the Movement as a studied cultural formation of the Divine African spirit. What Nettleford describes as the ‘inner logic’ of a peoples way of being is still yet to be adequately explored in scholarship. This has invited a divorced scrutiny of the Movement, to use the analogy of Rastafari thinker Mutabaruka, academic research would be tantamount to a doctor examining a ‘sick patient’ to check and chart the progress of its disease without any attempt at arriving at a curative, a remedy to treat the illness. This perhaps is a symptom of much academic investigation as there is still an unresolved struggle between the intellects/ theoreticians involvement in theory as opposed to practice. The 1960 ISER Report is the one notable exception and more will be said of this document in later discussion. Rastafari thinkers content that the scrutiny of the movement has been the source of national profit, tourist fascination and economic reward for many in particular this University of the West Indies, without a reciprocal burden of obligation on those who have been studied, in the way of channeling resources back to help it to achieve its key objective(s).
Brother ‘Planno’ in describing himself, said, "I am a Karmanic thinker", and then proceeded to explain by example the he sat in council with Bob Marley 2000 years ago with the same level of familiarity, that of brothers perhaps even father and son. It is the reestablishment of the familial networks that relearns and teaches each other of how to live that is at the heart of the relating within Rastafari. ‘Preaching’ and teaching of the Divinity of Haile Sellassie is seen as the total embodiment of the core faith of this visionary Movement. This is so because the emergence of this Emperor is viewed as the fulfillment of the prophesy of Repatriation/ Redemption, and so this study locates these two basic indicators (HIM and Return to Africa) as important cornerstones of the Movement’s philosophy or attitude to life, and further see these ideas as pillars around which the work of the Movement’s teachers construct. Key teachers are identified through their students’ works, as illustrated by the thinkers: musicians, writers, academics, animators and creative artists. Rastafarian Teacher is therefore being interpreted as the transformer activist, creator, server/ saviour, constituting a revolutionary nexus in their communities on a continuum of self empowerment and change. The teacher is the creator of the revolution of culture, as a basic ingredient in the methodology of mental liberation. Through them ‘ones’ are transformed back to ‘themselves’ based on ‘Reasoning’ as a means of viewing ones’ situation and examining reality.
The Movement despite its apparent lack of centralization has clearly within its ranks a good inventory of its resources and personnel, this allows for easy networking type strategies in delineating the pool of resource and devising strategies. In addition within the ranks of Rastafari there is the commonly held view that ‘each one teach one’, as such it is those who have been most sought after for their teachings (Knowledge) who were of primary importance to this study. The teaching/knowledge which is being identified by this study relates to the indiscriminate ability/facility to transform present reality into a system of empowerment. – Key among the teachers, and universally accepted to be a luminary among men is Mortimo Planno. Described as a teacher of teachers, Planno’s "Open Yard - 5th Street University" courted scholars and researchers from around the world. Planno is therefore not perceived as a mere teacher but indeed an institution himself, for generating; dissemination and archiving of knowledge. Bro. Planno’s work as well as his networks, is therefore considered as one of the central contribution to how the Movement has developed.
Within the Caribbean space Rastafari approach could be is viewed as a multidisciplinary method to looking at the dynamics and power negotiations taking place while cognizing the developmental and humanizing activity taking into account the traditional and popular notions of culture. To this extent researchers hold the view that Rastafari is an outgrowth of traditional African currents, combined with information brought form the experience of multiculturalism in the Caribbean. When examining the critical ideas which mold the Movements cultural identity following periods are noticeable:
1. Pan-Africanist [1913-32]
2. Modern Ethiopianist [1930-41]
3. Volunteer Ethiopians [1940-54]
4. Ras Tafari Movement [1955-66]
5. Rastafarians [1966-76]
6. Messengers of Jah [1977-87]
7. Universalisation Liberationist [88-present]
Distinct Ideational trends of the Rastafari Back to Africa Movement
"Marcus Garvey wi fada…help wi find fi wi Africa…"
This section introduces a vision of Caribbean societies as nations with ‘studied approaches’ to organizing for challenges and opportunities as it relates to building and rebuilding of the African. However there are still elements, indeed they constitute a majority, who are xenophobic and comfortably assume the new political designation of Barbadian, Haitian, Trinidadian, and the collective designation of West Indians especially when playing cricket. The ‘African Presence’, has been one of Marginalization form ‘capture’ in Africa to ‘Manumission’ in the Caribbean. Africans in diaspora in have had to negotiate themselves especially into spaces of literacy and as a result of this there has been little advancement within the academies concerning matters of African Upliftment. How did Africa become so revived, so completely passionately desired among a scattered people to have become a social force numbering in their thousand; and to what extent was Rastafari at the heart of this resurrection or ‘re-centering’ of Africa? These are questions we might ask to look into the logic of the Movement.
With the exception of Marcus Garvey’s work, there is little evidence to suggest that Jamaican scholars understand the project of African Redemption. The ground work he established – in the face of the colonial empire – in the United States he anchored his project and embarked on the rebuilding of the African nation and spirit through the Universal Negro Improvement Agency. Garvey asked crucial questions one of which was: How changed man has become since creation? Commenting on the retrograded individual making it as he describes "…impossible to find a real man". Garvey further theorizes:
"…only a certain type of man has been able to make good in God’s creation...(forgetting how civilizations are constructed…400,000,000 Negroes who claim common Fatherhood of God and Brotherhood of man, have fallen back so completely…to make us …slaves of those [who] have taken control of the world…" (Garvey 1923 pp. 24-25)
Marcus Garvey provided a foundation and the early publication of his Philosophies and Opinions by Amy Jaques Garvey, 1923 provided a liberation text for his growing world wide network of awakened Africans.
In the virtual absence of other early Jamaican scholarship, and the silence of educated elite concerning the rehabilitation of the enslaved African, it is the so called ‘illiterate’ African diasporian male especially who has angst themselves, in charting a course for the ‘rehumanizing’ of Marcus Garvey’s ‘negro’ children. One is left to find and interrogate sources which are non-scribal to account the experience of that large section of the Jamaican Caribbean population who are treated marginally in the academic literatures and dismissed as Afro-centric fanatics, escapists and lunatics by their societies. In this approach what immediately become apparent is that the source of folk scholarship is the culture which it creates and in the realms of thinking on liberation the music has been the most vocal, succinct and sustainable.
This leads us to the issue of the Presence of Rastafari and the role which the Movement’s members and ideas played in administering ‘thoughtful leadership’ to the Jamaican People. Planno (1996) once more provides us with some light through which we may begin to discern the logic of the Movement’s approach to redemption. He reminds us that the memories of slavery live on in the blood even of the unborn children, the psychology of the society constructed in slavery placing very little concern on the family and its function outside of that of it reproductive capacity, it nurture, socialization and economic power were often ignored or misrepresented and as such the African family is the first and most severe consequence of European colonialism. The historical evidence suggests that the role of father disappeared since children belonged to owners of estates and were given these planter’s surnames. Absence of child’s biological father is further documented in the later period by such works as Edith Clarke (1957) and the focus on the phenomenon of female headed house hold as being the majority of instances in the Jamaican situation. Factors often highlighted by the research suggest an interplaying of culture, history, violence, and an evolved nature among the Jamaican male which see his physical presence as marginal in the environment in which children are raised.
The presence of the male migrant figure, in search of a way of sustaining his family is a feature of the Caribbean existence. This is often pursued through oversees Farm work and other opportunities for betterment; there is also death and violence as a method of attack on the African Jamaican family especially noticeable in the Jamaican society with the increase of the ‘gun culture’. Planno uses the analogy of Miss Rainbow to describe a woman who looses all the men she encounters to death and is left with a spectrum of children with a spectrum of surnames such as Brown, Green, Gray, Black etc. as a record of what society would describe as her indiscretions. There is also the notion of psychological indiscretion which impose values and morals on individuals to not think responsibly about reproductive philosophies, this is also made more complex by social occupations and activities which discourage ‘regular family life activity’ due to the demands placed on parents usually fathers in professions such as army, police, militia, Guerrilla forces, Revolutionaries, leaders to name a few.
There are some questions that emerge form the condition of ‘father’ and ‘family’. These are:
1. What is the place of male ideas in the home especially given the idea of the family, house, yard – as a female designations in the Jamaican African context?
2. Are Fathers ‘the’ determinant of the family’s life chances and ‘way of life’, opportunities and methods?
The Movement of Jah People: Some Conclusions
Is it that the father is that force which acts as an invisible glue, which translates and functionally interlinks persons to the society? [Quote authority] This family has prescribed role expectation and quite often these roles are congealed around the center pole of father. This patriarch around which the horizontal and vertical relations are built is measured in degrees of visibility or invisibility; children may or may not bear his name; he may or he may not provide for them and house them and he may or may not relate to their mother. He has options as to how he commits to his offspring in a way that women find far less choice. Increasingly there is the issue of ‘dysfunctional children’, especially where there are boys, being link to the presence or absence of a male role model. And in instances where the father is absent and there is no dysfunction within the achievement of the family questions are asked as to what substitute systems were in place to compensate for the absence. The issue as it relates to nurture and fathering / father’s influence seems to be an issue of ‘absence or invisibility’ on the one hand and on the other ‘absence or substitute’.
Rastafari has evolved an approach centred on ‘love’, and through this idea has provided a way of life to repair the breach inflicted on the African Family. The transgression of responsibility as a basic desire…the slave master’s name…denial of patriarchy and the inevitability of matriarchy (genocide of the species is promoted in birth control and abortion…semen libation as a marker…(birth control as anti-masculine strategies), Rastafari come to redeem all of that…
Rastafari first provided that critique of the innocence of children and the problem of presenting them with the social baggage of their parents’ legal status. The notion of Bastard and the political repealing of the law, the cultural expectations of father…in society and how customs and traditions facilitate this (wrt to duties related to nurture…Nettlefords interpretation of the fathers seated in reasoning with children present
"…I predict that in fifty years, undisturbed or unmolested, I will show you a nation of proud, refined and cultured Black men and women…whose comeliness will outshine that of the age of Solomon…"
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Abstract
This paper focuses on the expression of the idea of Back to Africa by the Rastafarian Movement of Jamaica.
It argues that the idea of a return to Africa is a highly significant and often misinterpreted paradigm within the African Diaspora resistance dialogue. Through an examination of select text brought by Marcus Garvey delineating the notion of "Africa for the Africans at home and abroad", as well as some of the musical texts addressing the return of the uprooted and scattered children of Africa, namely that of Robert 'Bob' Marley, the Movement's contribution to African world thought will be viewed. The paper makes an assessment of the conceptualization of Resistance and Liberation paths, by the western trained academic versus the ordinary folk, towards a recommendation of greater collaboration between the two in achieving greater progress toward the advancement of African peoples.