"Rethinking the Role of the State in Higher Education in Africa in the 21st Century: A Case of the State as Financier"
A Paper to be Presented During the 10th General Assembly of CODESRIA to be Held at the Nile International Conference Centre, Kampala, Uganda, from 8-12 December 2002.
Dr. Munyae M. Mulinge
Department of Sociology
University of Botswana
Private Bag 0022
Gaborone - Botswana
Tel.: 267-3552766
Mulingem @mopipi.ub.bw
Abstract
Most African countries attained independence with populations that had limited exposure to higher education. Although the colonial governments did introduce and develop mainly missionary education, the training provided was a basic one through which Africans acquired rudimentary skills that enabled them to serve as clerks and as teachers. Not much emphasis was placed on higher education. As such, at independence Africa countries in the push to provide their people what colonisation had deprived them adopted educational policies that allowed for the massive growth of higher education. The major objective was to train natives to fill public service positions in the quest for the Africanization or indigenization of civil service and other private sector positions. As result, the practice in higher education for most countries to date can be characterized as one of train, train and train with governments investing huge chunks of their budget in higher education.
This paper interrogates the role of the state in the provision of education during today with a bias toward higher education. The guiding argument is that there is a need to re-evaluate public policy on education in general and on higher education in particular. This is imperative in lieu of the fact that most governments have invested in higher education almost at the peril of basic education which is the source of basic survival and social skills for citizens. The paper seeks to answer the following questions: What forms of government intervention in higher education are justified today? Are there any social and economic returns that still justify the provision of mass higher education utilizing public resources? These questions are important given that most African countries today, including even late comers such as Botswana, have entered what may be referred to as the second phase of education. By the second phase of education reference is made to the situation whereby even those who have higher qualifications are experiencing massive unemployment. That is, higher education is no longer an avenue to a public sector job. Rather than being a ground for training for employment, it has now literally become training for unemployment. With the exception of a few professional areas such as medicine and engineering, the demand for human resources has declined significantly as the inelastic civil service positions have all been filled.
INTRODUCTION
The development of education has been a longstanding objective of African Governments. Since independence states across Africa have shouldered the responsibility for the provision of education. They have been largely responsible for the financing and entire administration and regulation of the sector. The situation has developed gradually since independence and is now taken so much for granted that little explicit attention is any longer directed to its rationale. This has culminated in the indiscriminate extension of government responsibility in education. However, in today's world of declining state resources, most Africa countries, like all other developing countries, are faced with an educational dilemma in which the alternatives are becoming increasingly well defined (Simmons, 1980). Central to this dilemma are the questions of whether the state should continue with the expansion of the relatively expensive higher education at the expense of the relatively cheaper basic education, or whether major resources should be shifted to expand the quantity of and improve the quality of basic education. These questions have sparked of a debate which, most recently, has been enhanced by the further decline in state resources for the support of social and welfare services, including education, with the introduction of Structural Adjustments programmes (SAPs). It is this debate which is the locus of this essay.
This essay interrogates the role of the state in the provision of education during the 21st century with a bias toward higher education. More specifically, it focuses on the state as the major financier of education in general and of higher education in particular. In doing so, it is acknowledged that state involvement in education has transcended the state as financier, to incorporate other important functions such as the state as a regulator and as operator of educational institutions, among others. But the decision is reached to draw a sharp distinction between these functions to allow for the separate treatment of the state as financier of higher education function. Through the essay the following questions are addressed: 1) What is the appropriate role of the state, if any, in the financing of education as a whole? 2) Should the state play any role in the financing of higher education in particular? 3) Are there any social and economic justifications for state involvement in the financing of mass higher education utilizing public resources?
The debate about the state as a major financier of higher education is anchored on two major premises (facts). First, that with declining national resources states must re-evaluate public policies on the financing education to ensure that they remain consistent with the goal of universal basic education. Underpinning this goal is the assumption that education is a basic need and a basic right. This is consistent with Article 26, paragraph 1, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that ‘Everyone has the right to education’. Education is also a basic the source of basic survival and social skills for all citizen. Second, that state allocation of public resources must enhance equity in access to and utilization of these resources among members of society. These premises are important in lieu of the fact that most states today continue to invest in higher education almost at the peril of basic educationwhich is central to the fulfillment of the goals embodied in the two premises listed here.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
The development of education in Africa since independence has been guided by the important functions that have been associated with the sector. First, African Governments since independence have given education priority because they viewed as an avenue for fighting ignorance and enhancing economic growth. In Kenya, for example, the Government, through its Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya, set a policy and pace for fighting illiteracy, ignorance and poverty in the country (Government of Kenya, 1965). Since then, as a testimony to the Government's commitment to the development of the education sector that serves the nation and meet the country’s development needs, the education sector has been reviewed many times by state funded special commissions and working parties.
Secondly, state involvement in education across most of Africa has occurred guided by a "manpower (planning) approach' whose basis is the deficits in human resources inherited at independence. Most African countries attained independence with populations that had limited exposure to higher education. Although the colonial governments did introduce and develop mainly missionary education, the training provided was a basic one through which Africans acquired rudimentary skills that enabled them to serve as clerks and as teachers. Not much emphasis was placed on higher education. As such, at independence Africa countries adopted educational policies that allowed for the massive growth of education. States invested, and continue to invest, considerable chunks of their budgets on education both at the basic and higher levels with the objective to train human resources needed for the Africanization of civil service and other private sector positions and to plan and implement development projects.
In addition, education has been identified with both social and economic benefits. For instance, better education or high literacy rate among women and men have been associated with socioeconomic benefits such as lower level of fertility, lower infant and maternal mortality, longer life expectancy and address gender equity issues in development (Abagi, 1999; Colclough, 1980; Cochrane, 1979). Education is also regarded as a fundamental pillar of human rights, democracy, and peace. It is argued that a stable and democratic society is impossible without widespread acceptance of some set of common values and without a minimum degree of literacy and knowledge on the part of most citizens. Education contributes to both. In regard public expenditure on education can be justified as a means of training youngsters for citizenship and community leadership.
FINANCING HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Since independence, governments in Africa, like in most other developing countries, have assumed the financial costs of providing education. This role has spanned both basic and higher education. It has involved states paying not only for the minimum amount of education required of all but also for additional education at higher levels to youngsters even where it is quite evident that such education will have no returns or is not needed/necessary. The umbrella position adopted in this essay is that there is an urgent need for African states to re-evaluate their policies on the financing education. This need rests on several justifications grounded on current practices.
First, among the major functions of the state are to oversee the utilization and equitable distribution of national resources and to preside over economic growth. In its broadest sense the concept of equity embodies the concept of 'education for all' (Avalos-Bevan, 1996: 56). While it can be interpreted as quantitative educational opportunities for all regardless of social origin, ability, gender, most important it should also mean quality education for all. This is important since it has been recognized that the benefits of schooling both to the individual and to the country's development are not just related to having spent some years in school. Rather, it is related to the completion of a school cycle that equips the person with communication and numeracy skills as well as with practical competencies to deal with the environment. The current notion of universal basic education in Africa where it exists has tended to emphasize the former at the expense of the latter. The trend is getting worse with declining educational resources and with even the attainment of the communication and numeracy objectives being severely undermined.
Both the growth and equity functions urge investment in basic education. Investment in basic education guarantees that more people benefit from societal resources. On the contrary, higher education does not meet the needs of the poor who are the majority in most African countries. Across most of Africa higher education institutions are elitist (Hinchliffe, 1987) and tend to enhance the privileges of a few members of the society. They provide training for urban, white collar jobs while most of the jobs, and most skills required in development tend to be manual and in rural areas (Simmons, 1980). Also students from poor families are usually unable to continue formal education to the university level (Simmons, 1980). Investment in basic education also ensures that the majority of the population is equipped with minimum social skills necessary for participation in socioeconomic development. In 21st century Africa, the planning of investment in education must be guided by, among others, the desire to narrow the gap in the distribution of societal resources. States must embrace policies that have greater impact on improved access, equity and quality of education at the primary school and secondary levels as opposed to the current trends in which efforts are concentrated on post secondary education. This means expanded investment in basic rather than in higher education.
Declining public resources is the second reason why the state must review its role as financier of higher education. In most African countries, the implementation of SAPs has had a major impact on the provision of basic social services like education, health, and nutrition, among others. Since the early 1990s many African governments have under pressure from the World Bank/the International Monetary Funds (IMF) and their supporters to cut spending as part of reforms towards economic revival. These institutions have pushed for cuts in government expenditure (or subsidies) on social welfare programmes such as education, housing, health, and food coupled with reductions in the public sector. For the educational sector, this is happening at a time when more resources are needed to make it more effective.
In Kenya, a closer analysis of expenditure by the Ministry of Education shows that in the 1992/93 to 1996/97 fiscal period, the total expenditure going to education experienced a decline. Since the implementation of SAPs through cost sharing, the government expenditure allocation to Education that stood at18% of total expenditure in 1988/89 declined to 6.9% by 1991/92 (a reduction by 62%) and stood at only 7.3% by 1996/97 (World Bank, 1995a; Government of Kenya, 1996; Abagi 1997). The basic education sector has been the most affected by such fiscal trends. The consequences have included lack of equipment, teaching material and other operation and maintenance expenditure outlays that are important for the development of the education sector. These have been accompanied by declining enrolments and rising drop out rates (Government of Kenya, 1993). Given that the ability of governments to finance education and other social services is likely to continue to decline, the process needs to be revisited to ensure a more balanced and equitable educational system.
Consequent from the declining public resources has been a bias towards higher education at the expense of basic education. The second half of the 20th century witnessed the most spectacular expansion of higher education: an over six-fold increase in student enrolments worldwide, from 13 million in 1960 to 82 million in 1995 (UNESCO, 1998). However, for most Africa and other developing countries this growth has been occurring at the expense of basic education as earlier defined. As higher education faced challenges and difficulties related to financing, most governments concentrated their education budgets on this sector by reducing expenditure in basic education. If this expansion of higher education is continued, an increasingly larger share of the national budgets will go to this level of education at the expense of basic education.
To illustrate, in Kenya, existing evidence shows that basic education which caters for the majority of school-age children (6-13 years) has since the 1990s been getting declining resources from the total government expenditures, as compared to other levels of education (Abagi, 1997). At current prices, the Government of Kenya spends Kenya shillings 2 774 per primary school child, Kenya shillings 9 418 per secondary school child, and Kenya shillings 115 812 per university student. This gives the ratio of 1:3:42 (Abagi, 1997). It means that the Government spends three times and 42 times as much for a secondary and university student, respectively, to that of a primary pupil. Thus, the amount spent on one university student would comfortably be enough to maintain about 41 pupils in primary school for a year. This trend is illustrative of Simmons' (1980: 5) position that most developing countries share educational 'objectives to reach universal literacy, develop manpower to promote economic growth, and increase economic payoff for groups previously excluded' but in most cases the defense of privilege has often obstructed educational progress. This is reflected in the continuing expansion of state support for higher education at the expense of basic education.
The progressive decline in governmental involvement in basic education in most African countries is incompatible with the mandatory and universal basic education for all. While most African states still cherish a policy of education for all, there has been slow progress towards achieving this objective. Making specific reference to Kenya, for example, Abagi, and Olweya, (1999) point out that access to education has not increased sufficiently, and education quality has plunged. Declining access and enrolment rates, high dropout rates and declining performance in national examinations have become the norm. The situation may not be that much different across most of Africa. Nearly everywhere education faces many problems and challenges, ranging from the issues of access and quality, to relevance of education. At the current rate, the declining government involvement in basic education could lead to state non-intervention in is basic education. This would leave the sector to market forces, thus resulting in some students who desire education being priced out of the market or others with low valuation of education to choose not to enter the market. Yet even developed countries like the United States still operate a system of mandatory and "free" public primary and secondary education (Peddle, 2000).
The third justification for states to rethink their role as financiers of education is that the primary purpose of universities and other institutions of higher learning has been to produce qualified manpower (Hinchliffe, 1987). Consistent with this goal, the expansion of higher education in African countries has largely been planned on the basis of manpower requirement forecasts. However, over the years the importance of higher education as a training ground for much needed human resources has eroded. In the majority of African countries, the major employer of higher education graduates is the public (government) sector. In most countries guarantees have been rescinded and there is widespread pressure to stabilize rather than expand public employment (Hinchliffe, 1987) and the rate of expansion of jobs in the public sector has been slowing down. In particular, graduates with degrees in humanities, social sciences, and education are finding it increasingly difficult to obtain jobs of the type they found in the past. Even in countries such as Botswana where training lagged behind for sometime, the public sector labor market for university graduates, save a few professional, technical, and specialized areas, has become saturated. Thus, most of the hiring taking place is only to replace those who have retired or resigned.
What the above suggests is that most African countries today, including even late comers such as Botswana, have entered what may be referred to as the second phase of education. By the second phase of education is meant the situation whereby even those who have higher qualifications are experiencing massive unemployment. That is, higher education is no longer an avenue to a public sector job. With the exception of a few professional, technical, and specialized areas such as medicine and engineering, the demand for human resources has declined significantly as the inelastic civil service positions have all been filled. In particular, higher education has transformed from being a means to an end (public service jobs) to an end in itself.
In lieu of the human resources situation in most African countries today, State intervention in funding higher education should be tied to the market demand for the trainees. That is, states should concentrate their efforts in funding trainees in areas for which there is still unmet market need. In particular, some countries have yet to meet the demand for in areas such as science, technology, certain professions and specialized human resources. What states should pay closer attention to is not more training but efforts to arrest the brain drain that has affected most countries causing problems in human resource utilization (Balogun and Mutahaba, 1990). Noting the huge loses that Africa has incurred as a result of brain drain, bodies such as the ECA, the ILO, and UNCTAD have urged African Governments to initiate steps for the return of skills to the continent. What is worrying for Africa is not cross border migration per se. Rather it is the selective nature of that migration. The new pattern of migration involves the relocation of Africa's highly trained and hard-to-replace professionals to Europe, North America, Asia, the Gulf region, and most recently to Southern African region (especially Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa). The movement mainly involves medical doctors, paramedical staff, teachers, University professors, engineers, and scientists, among others. These are the individuals 'whose skills seem to be highly appreciated in countries other than their own' (Balogun and Mutahaba, 1990: 66).
A fourth driving force behind the need to reevaluate the role of the state in funding higher education lies with the fact that today basic education is more functional for the society as a whole and has substantially higher yields (Harberger, 1980) than higher education. The rates of return to investments in basic education are generally greater than those to higher education among the low- and middle-income countries. Basic education provides the basic skills, knowledge and attitudes for civic order and full participation as well as for all forms of work (World Bank, 1995b: 95) and is pertinent to solving high rates of unemployment that most African countries are faced with today. As Simmons (1980: 3), pointed out, "If a country's goal is economic growth, planners, using the results of the economic profitability studies might urge a reduction in public spending on higher education and upper secondary, and increase the proportion of spending on both primary and vocational training for rural employment." What may be needed is to rethink the curriculums to include more practical skills e.g., by incorporating interpersonal and agricultural skills. Furthermore, for governments strapped for cash, investment in basic education is less strenuous because costs of teachers, buildings, supplies, and so on are not very high (Harberger, 1980) compared to higher education. Higher education is usually many times more expensive per student than basic education.
In addition, in today's world where the economic returns from education are dwindling, the social function of education is acquiring more importance. Since the social returns to the elementary and secondary education in developing countries well exceed those from higher education, returns from state investment in basic education will definitely be higher at the basic level. Thus, to guarantee everyone the social benefits that come with education the state funding for education should prioritize basic education rather than higher education, as is currently the trend. This is consistent with World Bank literature (Psacharopoulos, Tan and Jimenez, 1986; World Bank, 1995a) which recommends that developing countries adopt a policy of reducing the public cost of higher education and reallocating government spending toward those educational sectors with the highest social returns (primary then secondary).
Finally, emerging evidence suggests that the demand for higher education in Africa will remain with or without state funding. This is well illustrated through the success of the privately funded parallel degree programmes operated by state universities in Kenya and Uganda. These provide clear testimony that the exit of the state from the financing of higher education will not spell doom for the sector. They have proven that there are other options to state finance in the quest for higher education. This view is bolstered further by the capacity utilization of mushrooming private universities in Kenya and the high numbers of privately sponsored individuals who are pursuing higher education abroad. In sum, the thirst for higher education is there and will be satisfied with or without state finances.
THE WAY FORWARD
The reiterate, the basic argument presented in this essay is that African states must reconsider their role in financing higher education in Africa. More specifically there is need to divert the limited resources available for education to basic education since it is most likely to benefit more citizens and the society at large. The emphasis on state concentration in basic education presented here is consistent with the position adopted by the World Bank since 1990; the World Bank has encouraged countries to concentrate on primary education which is seen as an essential element for sustainable development and to alleviate poverty (Torres, 1999).
Financing higher education in Africa in the 21st century requires the concerted efforts of the benefactors, the private sector, and the institutions themselves with the state playing an increasingly declining role. In the face of limited government resources to support education, communities, households and the private sector should assume more responsibility in the financing of higher education while state refocus their resources on basic education. It does not make much social, economic, or even political sense to concentrate scarce educational funds on higher education in a continent where significant proportions of those who join primary schooling drop out before completion and even those who graduate often still lack the skills needed to become productive citizens. Not when a good basic education is of critical importance to an individual’s successful development which, in turn, contributes to the social and economic growth of a nation.
As underlined earlier, the costs of higher education per student have been increasing rapidly over the last few years throughout the world and especially in developed countries. To cope with budget constraints proportion of the cost of higher education that is funded through non-governmental sources of revenue should be increased steadily in an attempt to wean off higher education from its current dependence on public funds. A phased state de-linking from the financing of higher is recommended in this regard; one that would eventually see the complete exit of states from the funding of higher education. Cumulatively, states have enhanced the status of infrastructure in institutions of higher learning to a level that could be judged adequate net of maintenance. As budgets dwindle, states may wish to revisit their role in this regard with the view to reducing it to one of maintaining the existing infrastructural facilities to counter decay. States may initially continue to provide capital grants to help higher education institutions to maintain and develop their land, laboratories, classrooms and other buildings, and to purchase equipment. But the ultimate goal should be their eventual total exit from the role of financier of higher education.
The are several ways though which the private sector, individuals, and the institutions of higher learning can contribute to the financing of higher education in Africa. Based on the discussion ensuing in this essay the following are recommended as viable options to state funding. The recommendations are made in the light of the advice that developing countries should reduce the cost of higher education so as to reallocate government spending towards the primary and secondary education sectors, the sectors with the highest rates of return.
Encouraging Private Universities
Private universities are one option that can release the state from the burden of providing (financing) higher education. States should encourage and license for-profit universities. These incorporate all the efficiency incentives associated with the prosperous business firm and can deliver their courses at much less cost than others. Despite the fact that the share of tuition in total costs is quite high, they have already succeeded in gaining a firm threshold in countries like Kenya. Currently Kenya has more than five private universities. The fact that these are fully utilized is testimony to the capacity of individuals to pay for higher education. Here the success of the parallel degree programme which operates in public universities but along the lines of private universities with respect to financing, further underlines the capacity for privately financed higher education in the country. Not to forget the large numbers of privately sponsored individuals who go to study abroad every year.
Student Loans
The system practiced in most African countries in which governments provide bursaries to cover tuition and room and board plus purchase of books and supplies and an allowance for personal expenses is no longer sustainable in most countries. Even where these are still possible, they do not make economic sense when viewed within the context of scarce public resources. The practice not only entrenches the unequal access to and utilization of societal resources but also furthers investments of scarce resources in an area where social or individual returns have diminished. A viable option to this practice would be creation of a system of student loans to cover living expenses and some proportion of direct teaching costs. The loans would be available to all students. The World Bank supports this option when it emphasizes a policy focusing largely on increasing the fees of university students and at the same time assisting them with student loans. More efficient student loan systems would open up access for a much wider set of students.
Where student loan systems already exist, these should be improved. The income-contingent loan systems used in countries such as Australia, New Zealand and Sweden could be tried. Under this system the debtor is not committed to repay an open-ended proportion of his/her future income toward the loan. Instead, the loan is repaid as a predetermined fixed percentage of post-graduate income above a certain threshold. Income-contingent loans limit the extent of debt burdens in a given year and substantially extend the repayment period compared with the mortgage type loans that have been typical hitherto. For these reasons the barriers to lower-income students are significantly reduced.
Self-Financing: Tuition/Student Fees
Tuition fees, or charges levied by an institution in respect of every student it educates in return for the education provided (Sandbach and Thomas, 1996), should become a major source of financing for higher education. Institutions of higher learning can charge fees for tuition, accommodation and food. This approach could be implemented coupled with a scholarship scheme for the poorest students. Such low-income scholarships will help bridge the gap between the "haves" and the "have-nots."
The successful parallel degree programmes operated by institutions in Kenya and Uganda demonstrate the practicality of this option. Through such programmes these institutions have been able to generate funds for capital developments as well as for the better remuneration of teaching staff. Further testimony that private financing constitutes a viable option to state financing can be found in the high numbers of privately sponsored students studying abroad from most African countries.
Endowments and Donations
Higher education institutions should also turn to business and private sources for funding.
The establishment of endowments is one step in this direction. "Endowments usually take the form of a gift of a capital sum, the interest and dividends arising from related investments being used to support a specific activity on a continuous basis e.g. professorships, a scholarship or a prize fund" (Sandbach and Thomas, 1996: 56). Such funds should be set up in institutions of higher learning to which private donations can be made by individuals and the private sector. These could integrate the establishment of specific projects in respect of which general appeals for donations are made. The University of Botswana through the University of Botswana is testimony to the practicality of this option.
Business and Private Funding
The private sector in general, business foundations and individuals can contribute towards the financing of higher education. These could do so in a number of ways beyond their current contribution via taxation (Hinchliffe, 1987). Large firms for example, can be encouraged or required to fund those faculties from which they recruit graduates, and/or to provide bursaries or scholarships to trainees to partially replace government subsidies. Individuals too can participate in the financing of higher education. Africa, though populated by mainly impoverished people, has a few wealthy individuals who can leave a mark in their societies by donating some of their wealth to the higher education course. The development and entrenchment of the alumni concept would be a good starting point in this regard. It should be noted that alumni's funding has contributed significantly to the success of higher education institutions in the United States and other developed countries.
Establishment of Funding Offices
Institutions of higher learning must set up official fund raising departments. This would have the full time responsibility to seek donations from private businesses and individuals especially alumni.
Income Generating Activities
Income generating activities also offer another viable substitute for state finances in higher education. Two activities are particularly recommended. First, universities should embrace an entrepreneurial (or corporatist) culture marked by involvement in directly productive enterprises. They should invest their monies in market enterprises that give them returns. Technical and professional faculties such as agriculture, law, business and engineering could take a leading role in the establishment of profit driven enterprises. To be more effective universities could establishment units exclusively responsible for investments and income generation. The second activity that is considered to be suitable within the context of income generating activities is consultancy projects undertaken by university staff. Out of such projects the institutions would get a certain percentage of funds accrued. In this regard it is recommended that institutions intensify the undertaking of consultancies for, and providing other services to, external bodies on a commercial basis. This is possible given the professional and technical capacities these institutions are endowed with.
Research Grants
Our universities must strive to attract and increase income from research grants and contracts. Research contract work can be sourced for from government, local authorities, industry and commerce.
Stringent Financial Management
To counter cuts in public expenditure in higher education, institutions must practice efficiency. They should use resources as well as they can by maximizing output for given inputs or minimizing inputs for given outputs. The efficient use of public funds in higher education demands that such resources be invested in areas where they produce 'goods and services' which are needed or desired by the country. The need for stringent financial management in African institutions of higher education is further necessitated by the fact that these have not been immune to the culture of mismanagement and corruption that has plagued major public and private sector organizations in our societies. A future financial strategy for these institutions must incorporate the stringent management of finances and more transparent financial practices. This will institute discipline and a more efficient utilization of the limited resources at the disposal of these institutions.
CONCLUSION
One basic major observation can be deciphered from the debate ensuing in this essay. That is, the expansion and continued support for higher education, particularly University education, in virtually all African countries today seems to be driven more by national pride and internal politics than by the real need for these institutions. Given diminishing educational budgets and in light of the fact that most countries have met the deficits in human resources - both unskilled and professional/skilled/specialized - state investments in higher education no longer constitute efficient and effective utilization of scarce national resources. In light of this observation, this essay argues for the reorientation of approaches to educational development by African states which would involve a shift from policies that favor higher education to prioritize availability and access to quality basic education for all. This requires resource reallocations, in which cuts in educational budgets involve a shifting emphasis from higher to basic education, and improvements in institutional capacity.
The essay also points to the need for African states to adopt policies, strategies, approaches and methods for the enhancement and sustainability of equity and quality in the provision of basic education services. This calls for expanded access to primary schooling, especially in rural areas and for both boys and girls and the development and enforcement of standard of quality in basic education services. It also requires improvement in efficiency in the delivery of educational services and the nurturing and strengthening of enabling environments to promote and improve retention of pupils at the basic education by developing, implementing steps for the reduction of dropout rates.
To conclude, I wish to underline the following. There is a tendency for states and policy makers to become so fixed with given practices, particularly those from which they derive political mileage, that they are incapable of seeing certain contradictory alternatives to them (practices). The education system is one such area because it cannot be de-linked from the politics of any nation state. As such, it is not uncommon for states and their bureaucracies to listen openly and attentively to suggestions like those presented here but fail to place them on their mental screen or to make them part of their action menu. However, unless a financial miracle coupled with enormous expansions in our labor markets take place, states have no choice but to rethink their role as financiers of higher education. This they must do guided by the umbrella functions of education under an environment in which the training of human resources function is declining in importance and by the moral obligations they have to oversee some semblance of equity in the distribution of limited national resources. Furthermore, if there is a sector of education that has the capacity to be financially self-sustaining that sector is higher education and not basic education. All African countries are replete with evidence to this end in the form of the numbers of privately sponsored individuals pursuing higher education either at home or abroad.
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