Globalisation and Technology: Problems and Prospects for the Agricultural Sector in Africa

Africa, the continent of expectations is still quagmired by basic existential necessities of food, shelter and clothing. Moreso, it is alarming that in this age and time, Africa's food crisis has assumed monumental proportions occasioned by a multiplicity of factors such as poor leadership, wars and poor planning and implementation of development policies. Quite often, many have argued that Africa's crisis of development is significantly traceable to its incapacity technologically to cater for the welfare of its citizens (Bhagaran, 1990; Adubifa, 1990; Aju, 1994; Agbu, 2002). As if this is not enough, reinforcing this handicap is the ubiquitous impact of what is now generally referred to as 'globalization'. It is essentially the thrust of this paper to examine the linkage between globalization as a phenomenon and technology as a catalyst, and there impact on the agricultural sector in Africa. The agricultural sector is focused upon because it is our belief that food is one element in human existence that is fundamental, and which to all intents and purposes, should be abundant, but ironically what we have in Africa is a food crisis.

The emphasis on agriculture is clearly justified when one considers the fact that it is the dominant economic sector in most developing countries. This sector contributes about 76 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) while employing nearly three-quarters of the total labour force (Alamgir and Arora, 1991: 2; Grobbelaar, 1998:210)). Alarmingly, the United Nations believes that there are about 200 million "hard core hungry" people in Africa, out of a total population of about 340 million in the continent. The organization stated that Africa needed at least $4.6 billion annually to tackle increasing hunger amongst its people. It also observed with regards to the impact of war, that war had drained an estimated $52 billion in agricultural output in Africa between 1970 and 1997. (The Guardian, 2002:1).

Generally, the record of African agriculture since the independence period has been that of denying food matters the attention it should have been accorded. This had been as a result of poor planning and implementation of policies, and often ill-advise from external sources. Today, Africa is almost a laughing stock, and this is in a fast changing world in which food and its related aspects are taken for granted by citizens of the developed world.

Indeed, in the past three decades, African policy makers had been bombarded by often-conflicting ideas on agricultural development strategies, from an array of diverse international development agencies. One such development strategy, from 1980 onwards was the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). During this period, the role of the state in agriculture was down- played and local agricultural specialists and institutions were largely ignored (Grobbelaar, 1998: 210). The failure of this strategy is today evident in the persisting crisis of development in Africa, which includes the agricultural sector. Problems often identified with Africa's agriculture include- inadequate funding and/or access to credit, poor research and development as this relates to inputs - chemicals, machinery and seedlings, and the often unpredictable weather conditions. It was observed that African governments as a whole spent less than 2-5 percent of their GDP on agriculture (National Concord, 1992). Now, this is grossly inadequate for a society whose economic history and culture revolves around agriculture.

It is therefore against this background that we seek to interrogate the state of agriculture in Africa in the context of globalization that is clearly propelled by technological innovations. For instance, How does the on-going globalization process affect agriculture in Africa? Secondly, is there any link between technological capacity and the food crisis in Africa? And, thirdly, what are the prospects for Africa's agriculture through the use of modern technological developments?

It is quite right to argue that Africa cannot begin to benefit from global developments in trade, technology and in improving the welfare of its people until it is capable of ensuring a reasonable level of food security for its people.

It appears that the phenomenon known as globalization has two very visible categories in trade and technology, moreso, information technology. This is not to say that globalization or the activities of transnational companies (TNCs) to put it simply, is a recent phenomenon. Only that today, their activities (the TNCs) are made much easier by the application of microelectronics in the form of information technology. Everyone is closer to each other now, and it appears that there is no hiding place anymore. Again, markets are now inter-linked and even inputs are all standardized and may have to eventually be purchased from the same source.

Generally, globalization is associated in the minds of many people with fear of unemployment and growing inequality, both nationally and internationally. On the other hand, it is also regarded as an opportunity to bring the benefits of mankind's progress to the entire world (Hemmer et.al, 2000). Though, the definition of globalization is subject to various perspectives, it is generally agreed that it is an economic phenomenon with far-ranging consequences, economic as well as otherwise. There is also, a general agreement that globalization entails the extreme internationalization of the economic process.

However, a comprehensive definition of globalization conceives of it, as the worldwide division of labour, steadily penetrating everywhere, ultimately leading to the fragmentation of multi-stage production processes between different locations. Among the most important consequences of this are the rapid growth of the international trade on goods, and of foreign direct investment as well as the integration of capital markets, all contributing towards increasing the inter-dependence of markets and production processes in different countries (Nunnenkamp et. al, 1994: 3).

Not surprisingly, one of the fundamental conditions on which the emergence of a global economic network depends is the development of technologies, which serve to overcome the restrictions imposed on human mobility by space and time. It is therefore clear, that globalization in its present form is largely predicated on new technologies of transport and communication. (Hemner et. al, 2000: 3). With the end of the Second World War (1939-1945), modern transport technology attained an entirely new level of efficiency (inter-continental air travel, bulk freights, container technology etc.), building upon the first great leap in transportation in railways and steamships from the last century. Hence, the mobility of persons and goods has been considerably enhanced through the efficient shortening of geographical distances and cost of transportation.

In addition, progress in communication technology has also been dramatic in the last three decades especially through the micro-electronic revolution.. Technologies of telecommunication and data processing are now easily accessible, whilst the cost of transaction and communication has been drastically reduced. Through the Internet super highway and/or corporate Internet systems, data can now be transmitted virtually in zero time. This has greatly facilitated communication among trade partners and considerably improved management efficiency in international groups.

What the above implies is that technological progress in this age has served to enhance the mobility of most production factors, so that they are no longer restricted to any particular location. Hence, the cheaper it is to move semi-finished products or production factors over large distances, the more the competition between geographically distant locations will intensify (Straubhaar, 1996: 223).

There is therefore, little doubt that new technologies go hand in hand with globalization and this has grave implications for the developing world. Since, it is common knowledge that many countries of the developing world, especially in Africa, are technologically backward, it implies that their ability to participate or compete in the present globalising world is severely constrained. How for instance, can such African countries compete effectively in exporting their agricultural produce or even determining the price at which it can be sold. This has grave ramifications for the agricultural industry in the continent.

Just as the other sectors in Africa are undergoing crisis of various dimensions, the agriculture sector generally understood as a key sector in any effort at poverty alleviation in the continent is undergoing severe problems, sometimes generated by the global environment. Some of the problems include the use of poor technologies, inappropriate land policies, the issue of subsidies and global agricultural pricing mechanisms, and poor agricultural strategies.

Suffice it to say that, the performance of the agricultural sector has been dismal in the past three decades. The disruptions caused by wars and civil strife, drought, pattern of land use and rapid population growth are some of the constraints affecting agriculture in Africa (World Bank, 1981: 142). Again, the large and inefficient subsistence sector presents special obstacles to the development of agriculture in the continent. There is generally very little knowledge about new methods of crop rotation and seed protection. In addition, research and experimentation are generally lacking. The absence of knowledge about rainfall, soil quality and pattern of land use presents unusually serious obstacles to effective agricultural development.

In Africa, the use of fertilizer is very low, about 7kg per hectare, as compared to European countries who utilize about 251kg per hecatrare. This is important, because there is a positive correlation between the use of fertilisers and high yield. In Senegal, an observation of their rice scheme showed that for every additional kg of nitrogen, the additional yield of paddy was 20kg per hectare. Hence, the need for African farmers to utilize modern chemical inputs in their farming practices cannot be over-emphasized. However, the big question is - can these farmers, who often are peasant smallholders, be able to purchase the required chemical inputs and necessary farm machinery. To argue this, it had been suggested that African farmers should rather make more use of animal manure and animal power in the cultivation of farmland.

A cursory glance at the state of agriculture in countries like Nigeria and the Southern African region as examples reveal the contradictions in the political economy of agricultural production in Africa.

Nigeria has a total land area of about 92. 4 million hectares, out of which about 83 million hectares are arable. This is indeed, a relatively large proportion of earth's finite total arable land. Yet, Nigeria is starring a food crisis in the face. This is also notwithstanding the fact, that about 60-70 percent of the labour force are employed in the agricultural sector. Despite the growth in food output between 1990 and 1997, there had been an increase in food imports, from 8.2% to 20.5% of the total food requirement over the period (NES, 2000). Infact, Nigeria imports about N180 billion worth of food items yearly. The agricultural sector in Nigeria received only N3.87 billion in the 2002 budget, which was subsequently reviewed upwards after an agricultural summit made representations to the government, to N12.3 billion (The Guardian, 2002: 6).

Nigeria now has a new agricultural policy after recognizing that there is a limit to which it can liberlise and open its doors to international competition. Considering the unpredictability of the oil sector from which the country derives the bulk of its foreign exchange, the government is presently paying more attention to the agricultural sector. To this end, it is now making available fertilizers and farm chemicals at 25 percent subsidy, with subsidy on farm tractors and other farming implements. The new policy will also see to the provision of improved seedlings, fingerlings and day-old chicks as well as drugs and vaccines. The government is also to provide for improved storage facilities, credit facilities for farmers at the right time, and also serving as the buyer of last resort to avoid a crash in prices which may lead to losses by farmers.

In addition, people are being encouraged to take patents for agricultural implements fabricated for medium and small scale processing of agricultural produce which is dearly required in order to avoid wastage. All these of course, are in recognition of the fact, that the state has to assist in ensuring food security in the country. This approach had been used by many countries in Europe, who inspite of the numerous protestations at various multilateral negotiations still maintain subsidies on their products. Africa cannot, for its sake, do otherwise.

Nigeria is also taking advantage of its bilateral relations in addressing its problems in the agricultural sector. It has invited 500 Chinese experts, facilitated by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) to assist it in the establishment of rural earth dams to ensure better water management for year-round farming. It has been observed that Nigeria is blessed with abundant arable land in the north of the country, but food production is limited by the unavailability of water for all year farming. If this can be done, then the country may be inundated by the abundance of food.

The point must therefore be made, that in terms of new technologies and pricing for primary products and farm produce, there is very little that disadvantaged developing countries can do, short of planning their own agricultural strategies using local technology for subsistence. The question of exporting products, which implies competing effectively with other producers from around the world, is largely untenable at this period in time. Therefore, there is still a lot that the state can do in assisting essentially small holder peasant farmers who constitute the bulk of agricultural producers in Africa to improve on their output.

In the case of Southern African region, statistics as at 1994 indicated that as in several other parts of Africa, that majority of the people still reside in the rural areas - 70 percent in Botswana., 87 percent in Malawi, 50 percent in South Africa, 69 percent in Zimbabwe and 64 percent in Namibia (Rukuni, 1995). This has implications for the agricultural sector in the region, in terms of the problem of unemployment and that of access to land.

It is estimated that about 140 million people live in the Southern African region. In most of the countries in this region the rural people are poor, and resource base is relatively poor or underdeveloped, whilst the climate is relatively unstable.

In the recent past, state intervention in agriculture in virtually all of the countries in the region largely favoured large -scale commercial farmers and had resulted in dualistic (developed/underdeveloped) and bimodal production systems. In addition, there has been a range of political influences that had been impacted negatively on farming and regional trade in farm products. Civil wars contributed in reducing the capacity of agriculture. Indeed, the share of agriculture in GDP is decreasing for all the states in Southern Africa except maybe Angola, Mozambique and Zambia.

For South Africa in particular, it appears that there are some lessons to be learnt from their experience. Because of its isolation from the world during the apartheid years, it was not therefore, affected by the global changes in agriculture or the Structural Adjustment Programme. This notwithstanding, the small farmers faced constraints as a result of South African policies on politics, economy and society which affected them negatively (Grobbelaar, 1998: 212).

In short, agricultural development in South Africa had been characterized by greatly differing approaches to white and black agriculture. The contradictions in this society still largely reflect in the state of Black agriculture in this country. White agriculture and commercial farming engaged high priority in South Africa's development policies. State intervention and support strongly influenced the pattern of agricultural development which placed more emphasis on large mechanized agriculture. The support given to the commercial farmers included controlled marketing to reduce price and marketing risks, state run research and extension services, and agricultural credit measures (Vink and Kassier, 1990). Overall, the result was quite satisfactory. Infact, for the period 1980-1989, South Africa was self sufficient in all major agricultural commodities having achieved an overall self-sufficiency index of 130 (Van Rooyen and Van Zyl, 1990). Suffice it to say that it is these same strategies that many countries in the developing world, including Nigeria are now trying to implement concurrently.

On the other hand, farming by Africans in South Africa developed almost entirely as a separate mode of agriculture. In contrast to white commercial farmers, Africa small holder farmers usually operated at low input levels. Generally, they faced several problems having to do with the political system of apartheid, both in terms of land, inputs and marketing access.

Today, the situation is gradually changing as the South African government continues with its incremental land distribution programme. It is expected that agricultural development and land reform should be addressed through optimizing the contribution of the agricultural sector to economic empowerment of vulnerable groups, and designing successful agricultural settlements as part of the land reform and redistribution program (Grobbelaar 1998: 218).

A critical observation of the agricultural scene in Africa reveals that except maybe for South Africa, many governments have been intervening at all stages of production, consumption and distribution without much improvement. The question is, why is this so? Some of the policies attempted have resulted in discrimination against agriculture by shifting resources out of agriculture. Though, large scale farms and mechanization of agriculture have also been experimented, experience showed that very little was achieved as a result of a mixture of problems of overstaffing, mismanagement, and under-utilization of machinery. Also, inadvertent importation of food items like wheat and rice, and the raising of producers' prices of export items have all contributed to the fall in production of food (Singh, 2000: 9).

However, it is a good sign that the marketing boards abolished in most African countries are now being resuscitated as in Nigeria. Many of these boards were abolished during the SAP years, and subsequently created problems as the private sector was generally unable to take up the functions previously rendered by the public sector marketing boards.

One of the major questions facing many African governments is the fate of agriculture in a global environment characterized by inequality of access to influence and technology. Africa, formerly a net exporter of food, is today heavily dependent on food aid and imports. Increasingly, the issue of food security at individual, sub-national and national level is becoming a very crucial matter. Because of decreasing agricultural productivity, and the input and market constraints facing developing countries, discussions are now underway at the international level to develop a more rational trade regime which would require agricultural policy changes in the industrialized countries. However, negotiations on this had often been deadlocked.

At the WTO meeting in Doha in November 2001, negotiations on agricultural subsides remained highly contentious. The key concern was what to do with export subsidies, which practically pitted the EU against the entire WTO membership. The EU would not accept any draft language that contemplated "phasing out" of export subsidies. While Doha managed to retain the phrase, it was included with the qualification that talks must be conducted "without prejudging the outcome of the negotiations" (Garth Le Pere, 2002).

Generally, external factors which affect African agriculture in the context of the global economy include, the globalization of agricultural inputs and products markets, WTO emphasis on trade liberalization, lowering of import and export tariff and the removal or drastic reduction of agricultural subsidies (Olayemi and Okunmadewa, 1999). Others include the arrival of new agricultural technologies, associated developments in Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and advancement in information technology.

Since there are many small holder farmers in Africa, a major question revolves around the potential impact of the above scenario on them. There is therefore, a necessity for various countries to understand the technological and institutional pre-requisites for their participation in a globalised economy (Kydd, 2002). Let us note for example, that the increase in the role of the globalised market and reference to prices generally led to agriculture becoming more closely integrated into the international division of labour and hence, its subsequent dependence. The fact remains that beyond the sectoral crisis of agriculture is the need to thoroughly examine the validity of accumulation strategies based on expanding the export sector (whether agricultural, mining or energy) and the effects of the process of accumulation and the development dynamic (Amara & Founou-Tchuigoua, 1990: 14).

There is little doubt that the agricultural sectors of many developing countries are under severe pressure from the modern agrifood system (Goodman and Reddift, 1991; McMichael, 1996) especially, since the dominant developmental ideology for many years was "accelerated industrialization" and "modernization" which were largely based on support for manufacturing and mechanized agriculture. Hence, cheap food was required to maintain a cheap wage labour force that could attract foreign investment and capital accumulation. More often than not, mechanized agriculture was initiated by state farms or by capitalist farmers in close alliance with the state. These developments created important markets for the rapidly growing sectors of the post-war economy - surplus food production, capital goods or machinery and agricultural input supplies (Amanor, 1999: 29).

Beginning from 1940, the globalisation of agrifood technology complex was given added impetus by the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. Subsequently, many international agricultural research institutes were founded. These include - the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines in 1959, The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Mexico in 1963, the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria in 1967, the International Potato Center (CIP) in Peru in 1972, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India in 1972, and the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) in 1974. It was however, in 1971, that the International Agricultural Centres were unified into the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an advisory group for developing nations coordinated by the World Bank. The point which is being made here, is that agriculture and its related architecture has been globalised, and that this globalisation did not necessarily begin just now, but is the result of many years of evolution of the international system, especially since after the Second World War.

For African agriculture to be able to achieve its objectives, which includes ensuring food security for the African peoples, the role of the state is still required just as was the case in Europe and in the United States. African governments just have to learn now to walk the tight rope of balancing the vicissitudes of the multilateral framework on agriculture and their immediate national objectives. Again it is germane to note that any improvement in the agricultural sector necessarily means that a certain level of preparedness by African governments to effectively join the globalization process would have been attained. Hence, the problem is not just a sectoral one when we think in terms of the global economy, but a composite one, which requires a multidisciplinary approach in seeking solutions.

The changes taking place globally pose threats as well as opportunities. What Africa has to do is to lookout for the opportunities, in this case, in the agricultural sector. Several emerging markets hold enormous promise for growth in the agricultural business. However, we must not underestimate the tumultous character of the transition-taking place in the global environment.

In terms of the requirements for agricultural growth in Africa, it is averagely speaking, satisfactorily endowed. It has abundant agricultural land and a huge potential for irrigation, while the climate enables its inhabitants to produce almost every kind of crop (World Bank: 1990: 99). Generally, what agricultural planners require to ensure in the policies, even in the face of the jigsaw called Globalisation, is that the necessary inputs into the agricultural sector are provided - these include relevant technologies, experienced hands, land, credit, seeds and fertilizers. In addition, there should be a minimal provision of transport infrastructure, adequacy of marketing centres and farm service centres for input delivery, and output marketing. Also, there should be adequate storage and processing facilities and the dissemination of market intelligence and information.

Achieving what is akin to an agricultural revolution in the continent should therefore, be the primary target for the next decade or so. Since agriculture employs the bulk of African peoples and keeps people busy and fulfilled, it should as a matter of priority be considered a key sector in all African countries. Attention to this sector, and investment into it, will not only check the present surge of rural-urban migration with its attendant social ills, but also ensure food security for all. Indeed, what man or woman is taken seriously who cannot feed himself or herself! Same goes for countries. Therefore, any country that is capable of fulfilling the basic need of being able to feed its population invariably earns the respect of members of the international community. Yes, man does not live by bread alone, but physiologically; he requires the bread to be able to do other things, both for himself and his community and country.

It is however, recognized that this project of being able to provide food for all is not an easy one. It is a complex project and requires a multi-dimensional approach as earlier hinted. Right technological choices also have to be made. And this implies the design of adequate supportive economic policies - of price and income systems and ensuring the rationality of the choices they induce, of the supportive industrialization priorities and pattern of financing among others (Amara and Fourou - Tchuigoua, 1990: 4).

Overall, there is a great prospect for African agriculture especially in terms of being able to feed Africans without having to be beg for food aid. Again, exports of produce is possible, but will require a concerted and coordinated effort on a regional basis amongst the various countries as climatic conditions differ. The engagement between Nigeria and South Africa and the fast-trade approach to development between Nigeria and Ghana can also be extended to the agricultural sector. So many permutations are possible, both in terms of inputs into the sector and utilization of the surplus. These possibilities need to be explored.

On the whole, improved productivity in agriculture can be assured with the introduction of new and relevant technologies, including the use of machines, improved plant and animal stock or varieties, better crops as previously mentioned and more effort on post-harvest care. It is also important to ensure adequate investment and access to water for the farmers in addition to subsidies.

Considering the linkage between globalisation, technology and the crisis in African agriculture, it is pertinent that individual African states assess their internal situation and revise their policies in order to ensure their food security. More indepth assessment and measures are required to enhance the exportation of the surplus produce.

Though the state still has an important role to play in revitalizing the agricultural sector, there is the necessity for private sector engagement in research and development and marketing for small farmers, who are numerically predominant n Africa. Subsidies are still necessary, but should not only be targeted on the issue of market failure, but also for the entire gamut of variables affecting small holder agriculture.

The future in terms in ensuring national food security belong to those countries that are able to competently manage the impact of globalization on the agricultural sector on the one hand, while at the same time, are able to infuse appropriate technologies in their agricultural processes or practices. The crisis in African agriculture is generally a reflection of Africa's crisis of development, and at this period in time, should be addressed radically and comprehensively.

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